Pope Pius XII and the Church in China involves relations of the Holy See with China from 1939-1958. It begins with the recognition of Chinese rites by the Vatican in 1939, the elevation of the first Chinese cardinal in 1946, the establishment of a Chinese hierarchy, the persecution and virtual elimination of the Catholic Church in the early fifties, and the establishment of a patriotic, socialist Chinese Church, independent of Rome in 1957.
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For centuries, access to the people of China was difficult for the Catholic Church because it did not recognize their Confucian customs of honouring deceased family members. To the Chinese this was an ancient ritual but to the Vatican it was a religious exercise which conflicted with Catholic dogma. As a result the Church made little progress in China. Within a year of his election, Pope Pius XII made a dramatic change in policy. At his request, the Sacred Congregation of the Propagation of Faith issued new instruction on December 8, 1939, by which Chinese customs were considered superstitious no longer, but instead an honourable way of esteeming ones relatives and therefore permitted to Catholic Christians.[1] The Papal decree changed the ecclesiastical situation in China, and the Nationalist Government of China established diplomatic relations with the Vatican in June 1942, with the first Minister presenting his credentials in January 1943.[2] [3] As the Church began to flourish, Pius established a local ecclesiastical hierarchy and received Archbishop Thomas Tien Ken-sin SVD into the Sacred College of Cardinals [2] and later elevated him to the See of Peking.
After WWII, about four million Chinese were members of the Catholic faith. This was less than one percent of the population but numbers increased dramatically. In 1949, there existed 20 archdioceses, 39 apostolic prefectures, 3080 foreign missionaries, and 2557 Chinese priests.[4]
The establishment of the communist government in 1949 put these early advances on hold and led to the persecution of thousands of clergy and faithful in China. A patriotic Chinese Church was formed. Since that time, the persecuted Catholic Church exists only as a tiny fraction of its original numbers operating secretly underground. The losses were considerable. For example, in 1948, the Catholic Church operated some 254 orphanages and 196 hospitals with 81628 beds.[5]
October 1, 1949, Mao Zedong officially declared the founding of the Peoples Republic of China. Its constitution from September 1949 guaranteed all vital freedoms, including the freedom of religion and prohibited discrimination against believers. However, the government, was committed to its ideological vision of Marxism, which was very hostile to religion and supported its eradication. The communist party very quickly equated religious affiliation with political and ideological loyalty [6], and was especially hostile to religious bodies that it saw as outside of its control.
In Chinese cities, tolerance was practiced towards the Christian churches. In rural areas, persecution began in 1950. New laws against counter-revolutionary activities from July 23, 1950 and February 1951 [7] created legal tools for going after “enemies of the people”. The Catholic clergy experienced increased supervision. Bishops and priests were forced to engage in degrading menial jobs to earn their living.
Following the outbreak of the Korean war, in which western nations such as the United States played a primary role, foreign missionaries (most of whom were westerners) were accused to be foreign agents, ready to turn the country over to imperialist forces[7]. They were expelled from the country, and not allowed to return (to this day); all mission properties were confiscated [6]. The decision was made to neither jail nor execute for fear this may have provoked an international war between China and the western powers. This action was meant to symbolize China's liberation from foreign imperialism.
The ‘Preparatory Committee of the Oppose American and Aid Korea Three-Self Reform Movement of the Christian Church’ was founded for the purpose of denouncing western missionaries in China[6]. All churches were required to demonize foreign missionaries (even ones they had worked with for decades) and Chinese Christians who refused to comply were forced to enrol in political study sessions [6].
YT Wu in July 1950 led a delegation on behalf of nineteen protestant churches to meet with Premier Zhou Enlai, and at this meeting a statement was drafted calling for Christian support for the government. This led to the creation of the ‘Three-Self Patriotic Movement’ and the severance of all foreign ties to Christian communities in China. YT Wu later became the chairman of the Three-Self organization in 1954. The official policy forbade Chinese religious entities from being under the control of foreign entities[8]. This proved especially difficult for Roman Catholics, since the pope was considered such a foreign entity.
The Catholic church was considered extremely threatening due to its hierarchical structure, its nationwide networks and its ability to block government penetration. The state demanded catholics to give their full allegiance to the state, superseding allegiance to the Pope; political neutrality was not an option[6].
Pope Pius XII replied to these attacks and persecutions in his encyclical Evangelii Praecones, which concerned Catholic missions all over the world but includes his views on the new situation in China.
In 1951, the papal nuncio, Archbishop Riberi, was expelled from China. The Chinese government defined the Three Autonomies Movement (leadership, finances and teaching). Since the bishops interpreted this as an hostile attempt to organize the clergy, and to abandon the Holy See under the excuse of patriotism and nationalism, they objected. By 1953, many Chinese and foreign bishops and priests and lay persons were arrested, many of whom died in jail. Exact figures were not available.
Pope Pius XII, in his encyclical Ad Sinarum Gentem on October 7, 1954, warned the Chinese pastors that a national church would no longer be Catholic. He took a flexible stand on financial and organizational autonomy, stating that the Church viewed missionary and financial aid activities always as transitional. The training of domestic institutions and the formation of native clergy was therefore always the priority. At the same time one should not belittle the generosity of other Christians, who finance missionary activities. Foreign priests came in the name of Christ to China, and not as agents of hostile powers.[10] Regarding the autonomy to teach, he agreed, it ought to differ according to place and conform, when possible, to the nature and particular character of the Chinese people, and to its ancient traditional customs.
July 1957, Chinese delegates founded the Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association, breaking Vatican ties, since Rome was considered an instrument of American capitalism (though Catholic Social teaching condemns both capitalism and socialism, see Distributism) and aggression [13]. Long “voluntary re-education courses” followed for clergy and lay people. Priests and bishops were encouraged to study Marxism-Leninism, the teachings of Chairman Mao and the policies in order to give educated instruction to the Chinese people every Sunday. Counter-revolutionary elements were clergy who refused to participate in the patriotic program [13] The Bishop of Canton, Dominicus Tang was among the most prominent "counter-revolutionaries". Since 1957 he was under house arrest, interrupted only by “confessional meetings” lasting between two to four hours. Arrested on February 5, 1958, he was accused of preaching from the encyclical Ad Sinarum Gentem of Pope Pius XII. Other bishops were jailed and tried or exiled, if foreign born. After all bishops were jailed, killed or exiled, the government declared the sees vacant and installed its own candidates. March 24, and 26, 1958 patriotic bishops took over the dioceses of Hankau and Wuchang.[14] Others followed, after the rightful Catholic bishops were taken out and their legitimate representatives jailed as well [15] despite the vigorous protests of Pope Pius XII, who in his last encyclical. Catholic religious no longer exist. Foreign missionaries were expelled, the fate of most domestic religious is not known.[16].
With his encyclical Ad Apostolorum Principis, Pope Pius XII protested this renewed persecution. The radical break with Rome is visible. The encyclical asks, why faithful good Catholics become schismatic and concludes, that month long unending re-education courses and physical and psychological correction methods were inhuman but effective. Many were forced to make “voluntary confessions”, live in education camps, others were dragged before degrading People Counts. Therefore, the Pontiff admits, the Church, in the short term at least, is facing darkness. But she continues to possess he powers of protest, prayer and full confidence in God. In his last encyclical, Pope Pius XII blesses and comforts those who, remained faithful to the Holy See:
A recent Zenit article documents that the Catholic Church continues to exist in very small number in the underground. Priests continue to be arrested because of their loyalty to the Holy See. [18]
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